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During the late eighteenth century, innovations in Europe triggered the Industrial Revolution and the sustained economic progress that spread across the globe. While much has been made of the details of the Industrial Revolution, what remains a mystery is why it took place at all. Why did this revolution begin in the West and not elsewhere, and why did it continue, leading to today's unprecedented prosperity? In this groundbreaking book, celebrated economic historian Joel Mokyr argues that a culture of growth specific to early modern Europe and the European Enlightenment laid the foundations for the scientific advances and pioneering inventions that would instigate explosive technological and economic development. Bringing together economics, the history of science and technology, and models of cultural evolution, Mokyr demonstrates that culture--the beliefs, values, and preferences in society that are capable of changing behavior--was a deciding factor in societal transformations.
Mokyr looks at the period 1500-1700 to show that a politically fragmented Europe fostered a competitive "market for ideas" and a willingness to investigate the secrets of nature. At the same time, a transnational community of brilliant thinkers known as the "Republic of Letters" freely circulated and distributed ideas and writings. This political fragmentation and the supportive intellectual environment explain how the Industrial Revolution happened in Europe but not China, despite similar levels of technology and intellectual activity. In Europe, heterodox and creative thinkers could find sanctuary in other countries and spread their thinking across borders. In contrast, China's version of the Enlightenment remained controlled by the ruling elite.
Combining ideas from economics and cultural evolution, A Culture of Growth provides startling reasons for why the foundations of our modern economy were laid in the mere two centuries between Columbus and Newton.
- Sales Rank: #7306 in Books
- Published on: 2016-11-01
- Original language: English
- Number of items: 1
- Dimensions: 9.30" h x 1.30" w x 6.20" l, .0 pounds
- Binding: Hardcover
- 400 pages
Review
"[A] fine book. . . . One of our country's great economic historians has helped us better understand the greatest transformation in human welfare our planet has ever seen."--Richard Vedder, Wall Street Journal
"Wide-ranging and erudite. . . . Mokyr offers a useful corrective to excessively deterministic and materialistic treatments of economic history, emphasizing ideas--the West, he argues, had a uniquely positive view about subjugating nature to human control--and individual agency in shaping broad socioeconomic shifts."--Publishers Weekly
"Ultimately, without the impetus of science, economic growth would have fizzled out after 1815. A Culture of Growth is certainly making me rethink."--Brad DeLong, Nature
"A Culture of Growth is a brilliant book. You should buy it and even read it. It's long, but consistently interesting, even witty."--Deirdre McCloskey, Prospect
"In pointing to growth-boosting factors that go beyond either the state or the market, Mokyr's book is very welcome."--Victoria Bateman, Times Higher Education
"What stands out from Mokyr's approach is the highly contingent character of the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution. They happened because a lot of different things happened to fall into place; small deviations in the course of events could have given us an entirely different world of technological and economic power."--Diane Coyle, Financial Times
"Mokyr . . . dives into the mystery of how the world went from being poor to being so rich in just a few centuries. . . . Drawing on centuries of philosophy and scientific advancements, Mokyr argues that there's a reason the Industrial Revolution occurred in Europe and not, for example, in China, which had in previous centuries shown signs of more scientific advancement: Europe developed a unique culture of competitive scientific and intellectual advancement that was unprecedented and not at all predestined."--Ana Swanson, WashingtonPost.com's Wonkblog
From the Back Cover
"Many great minds have written many great books about why Europe spearheaded technological progress and economic growth in the past three centuries. Joel Mokyr has joined their ranks with admirable verve, erudition, and originality. In his account, a change in the beliefs, values, and preferences of Europeans drove them to accumulate, share, and apply knowledge as it had never been done before. Agree or disagree with Mokyr's thesis, you definitely need to take it seriously."--Daron Acemoglu, coauthor of Why Nations Fail
"Mokyr's new masterpiece is a virtuoso display of how new thinking in economics can bring a deeper understanding of one of the most important events in human history. A Culture of Growth documents the cultural shifts that permitted the interrogation of nature that then flowered into scientific advances. This book offers us an optimistic vision: a great expansion of communication preceded our modern prosperity, and we can expect this to happen again."--Angus Deaton, 2015 Nobel Laureate in Economics
"In A Culture of Growth, Joel Mokyr explores in detail the interactions among groups of educated people that led to the creation of specific innovative ideas important in the Industrial Revolution. Mokyr's historical laboratory is early modern Europe but his methods and findings seem to me equally useful in thinking about the prospects for a variety of contemporary economies the world over."--Robert E. Lucas Jr., 1995 Nobel Laureate in Economics
"In this immensely learned book, Mokyr argues that a specific culture of growth anchored in the Republic of Letters, spread through the enlightened circuits beginning with Britain, and made the Industrial Revolution happen. Written by America's leading economic historian, A Culture of Growth is magisterial and long overdue."--Margaret Jacob, University of California, Los Angeles
"A giant among the masters of economic history, Mokyr has written a brilliant, persuasive, humane, penetrating, and sensationally good book. Mokyr looks at the immensely powerful idea of a progressive Baconian science, which stepped down from theory to enrich the modern world. The range of scholarship is astonishing and this major work will become a standard in the literature on economic growth."--Deirdre McCloskey, author of Bourgeois Equality
About the Author
Joel Mokyr is the Robert H. Strotz Professor of Arts and Sciences and professor of economics and history at Northwestern University, and Sackler Professor at the Eitan Berglas School of Economics at the University of Tel Aviv. His many books include The Enlightened Economy and The Gifts of Athena (Princeton). He is the recipient of the Heineken Prize for History and the International Balzan Prize for Economic History.
Most helpful customer reviews
17 of 19 people found the following review helpful.
''The most direct link from culture and beliefs to technology runs through religion.'' (456)
By Clay Garner
This work presents Mokyer's conclusion that the scientific revolution/Enlightenment led to the industrial revolution. These two are the basis for the ''great divergence'' - the huge production of economic growth after 1800. Mokyr analyses the research of hundreds of other scholars - and even contrary opinions. Thereafter explains the reasons for his conclusions.
Writes in the academic style. Clear, but occasionally pedantic. Persuasive. Definite opinions without arrogance.
Part I: Evolution, Culture, and Economic History
Chapter 1: Culture and Economics
Chapter 2: Nature and Technology
Chapter 3: Cultural Evolution and Economics
Chapter 4: Choice-based Cultural Evolution
Chapter 5: Biases in Cultural Evolution
Part II: Cultural Entrepreneurs and Economic Change, 1500–1700
Chapter 6: Cultural Entrepreneurs and Choice-based Cultural Evolution
Chapter 7: Francis Bacon, Cultural Entrepreneur
Chapter 8: Isaac Newton, Cultural Entrepreneur
Part III: Innovation, Competition, and Pluralism in Europe, 1500–1700
Chapter 9: Cultural Choice in Action: Human Capital and Religion
Chapter 10: Cultural Change and the Growth of Useful Knowledge, 1500–1700
Chapter 11: Fragmentation, Competition, and Cultural Change
Chapter 12: Competition and the Republic of Letters
Part IV: Prelude to the Enlightenment
Chapter 13: Puritanism and British Exceptionalism
Chapter 14: A Culture of Progress
Chapter 15: The Enlightenment and Economic Change
Part V: Cultural Change in the East and West
Chapter 16: China and Europe
Chapter 17: China and the Enlightenment
Epilogue: Useful Knowledge and Economic Growth
''As this book makes clear, the solutions to the historical and the economic riddles coincide. My focus is on the period from 1500 to 1700, during which the cultural foundations of modern growth were laid. These foundations grew out of a set of political and institutional developments and cultural changes that were not intended to produce these results, and their deeply contingent nature is a recurrent theme in these pages.'' (236) Key theme is presented here. The 'cultural changes were not intended to produce these results'. Think Hayek.
''The most direct link from culture and beliefs to technology runs through religion. If metaphysical beliefs are such that manipulating and controlling nature invoke a sense of fear or guilt, technological creativity will inevitably be limited in scope and extent. The legends of the ill-fated innovators Prometheus and Daedalus illustrate the deeply ambiguous relationship between the ancient Greeks’ religious beliefs and their attitudes toward technology.'' (456)
''If the culture is heavily infused with respect and worship of ancient wisdom so that any intellectual innovation is considered deviant and blasphemous, technological creativity will be similarly constrained. Irreverence is a key to progress. But so, as Lynn White (1978) has pointed out, is anthropocentrism. In his classic work, White stressed the importance of a belief in a creator who has designed a universe for the use of humans, who in exploiting nature would illustrate His wisdom and power.'' (456) Moykr spends many pages on this idea in the chapter on China. Comments on Weber's thesis on the importance of Protestantism and economics. Analyzes the role of Puritans in England.
Spends many pages explaining the importance of the ''Republic of Letters''. Fascinating!
Many other insights. Serves more as a reference book than essay.
More than six hundred references. Extensive index. No photographs.
(The Bible, Protestantism, and the Rise of Natural Science Paperback – by Peter Harrison; covers same epoch with a different focus. Harrison examines the religious foundation for the scientific revolution. Compliments Moykr's book.)
1 of 1 people found the following review helpful.
How the culture of growth evolved
By Winton Bates
There can be little doubt that a change in attitude toward nature and the ability to harness it to human needs, that occurred among an educated elite in Europe in the period 1500 to 1700, paved the way for the industrial enlightenment in Britain, and the subsequent economic growth that has now benefited much of the world’s population. Joel Mokyr’s recent book, A Culture of Growth: The origins of the modern economy, explains that change of attitude in terms of cultural evolution.
Since cultural evolution involves individuals in making choices that change their beliefs, values and preferences it might be expected to be a gradual process. However, Mokyr uses cultural evolution to explain the large, discontinuous change in attitudes that occurred in Europe by pointing to: factors causing resistance to such change throughout the world; factors specific to Europe leading to a weakening of such resistance; and specific change agents espousing the cultural change that occurred. At the risk of over-simplifying the author’s scholarly efforts I will attempt to outline his thesis below.
Early modern Europe was a deeply religious age. The great Thomist synthesis, in which Christianity was merged with Aristotelian physics and metaphysics became a deeply entrenched dogma. The prevailing culture discouraged potential innovators from openly challenging this dogma. Science had previously flourished during some periods other parts of the world. It flourished in the first centuries of Islam, but was subsequently held back by mystical religious dogmas. It flourished in China during the Tang and Song dynasties (618-907 and 960-1127), but stagnated during the Ming and Quing dynasties (1368-1644 and 1644-1911) when institutions such as the imperial service examination system served to discourage intellectual innovation.
Political fragmentation is the specific factor which led to a weakening of resistance to intellectual innovation. In the context of the ongoing cultural unity of Europe, political fragmentation made it possible for intellectuals whose ideas were suppressed in one jurisdiction to continue their work elsewhere. The ubiquity of the printing press made a mockery of prohibitions on books by rulers of particular states. The rulers of different states sought to enhance their prestige by competing with one another to attract citizens with academic or other skills.
The third element of the evolutionary story is the work of cultural entrepreneurs, particularly Francis Bacon (1561-1629) and Isaac Newton (1643-1727). Joel Mokyr emphasises that Bacon’s contribution should be assessed in terms of his rhetorical contribution to cultural change rather than his specific contributions to science. Bacon challenged the traditional orthodoxy by emphasizing the potential for the “sacred duty” to improve the material conditions of life to be aided by knowledge gained from experimentation. He argued that knowledge ought to bear fruit in production.
Isaac Newton promoted the view that the universe is mechanistic and understandable and that the role of science is to establish empirical regularities. He also argued that this knowledge should be used for the material benefit of mankind.
The educated elite in Europe – members of the so-called Republic of Letters – looked upon Bacon and Newton as the most influential thinkers of their age. The Republic of Letters set up norms and incentives that supported the market place of ideas. Participants were expected to reply to letters, disclose findings and data truthfully and acknowledge intellectual debts. The main payoff for successful scientific efforts was enhanced reputation. Evidence and logic were needed to back up assertions in order to win acceptance for new ideas. Scepticism provided the basis for advances in codified knowledge.
In Britain, the Puritans were particularly impressed by Francis Bacon’s writings. They were deeply attracted to experimental research. The systematic study of God’s creation was seen to be the closest a Calvinist could get to understanding an inscrutable deity. The study of nature was seen to have potential to instruct interpreters of the scriptures. The Puritans saw a great deal of virtue in “good works”, which they associated with labour that was useful and profitable in a worldly sense. What we call leisure, the Puritans viewed as idleness. They regarded education in physics, science, mathematics and languages as deeply virtuous.
The Puritans showed little concern for improving institutions in ways that would benefit economic growth, but in their stress on empirics and the practical use of knowledge they constitute “an essential link between the early followers of Francis Bacon and the Industrial Enlightenment of the 18th century” (which Joel Mokyr wrote about in The Enlightened Economy). During the later Enlightenment period, science was, of course, able to “shed religion and advance on its own steam”.
In this brief review I have focused on the bare bones of Joel Mokyr’s model of cultural evolution. Readers interested in a broader perspective, should read Deidre McCloskey’s review in Prospect magazine. McCloskey’s important trilogy of books in this field also emphasize the importance of rhetorical contributions in promoting a culture of growth, but implies that literature’s role in changing attitudes toward business made a greater contributions Bacon’s cultural entrepreneurship in the field of science. I mention this just to acknowledge that history is complicated.
I find it difficult to read a book like A Culture of Growth without wondering what the implications it might have for the future. My reading of the history of the industrial enlightenment (sometimes still referred to as the industrial revolution) has previously made me think about the links between cultural change and economic policy reform. One might think that if a cultural evolutionary framework can help us to think about the past it should also be able to help us to think about the future. However, such models can only provide a framework. As Joel Mokyr emphasises models of cultural evolution are contingent rather than deterministic:
“In other words, they force us to recognize that things could have turned out differently than they did with fairly minor changes in initial conditions or accidents along the way” (p 232).
We can only hope that the “accidents” the world is currently experiencing do not destroy the culture of growth.
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This review appeared first on my blog: "Freedom and Flourishing".
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